'•QRTIETH    THCU    -AND 


SYSTEM 


REINHARDT. 


UNIVERSITY     OF    CALIFORNIA 

ARCHITECTURAL    DEPARTMENT     LIBRARY 


LETTERING 

FOR 

DRAFTSMEN,  ENGINEERS  AND  STUDENTS 


A  PRACTICAL  SYSTEM 
OF  FREEHAND  LETTERING  FOR  WORKING  DRAWINGS. 

BY 

CHAS.   W.  KEINHARDT 

\   « 

(Former  Chief  Draftsman,  Engineering  News.) 

THIRTEENTH  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED. 

FORTIETH  THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK: 

D.      VAN      NO STRAND      COMPANY, 
1913. 


"371 

f 

[113 


Copyright,  1895. 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY. 


E  F^V  C 

IN  looking  over  the  books  on  lettering,  which  have  come  under  the  writer's  notice,  he  has  found,  that  while 
doing  full  justice  to  the  principle  of  ornamentation  and  the  theories  governing  the  shaping  of  each  letter,  no  author 
has  as  yot  attempted  to  treat  lettering  from  a  purely  practical  point  of  view.  The  need  of  a  practical  work  on  lettering, 
however,  has  been  and  is  daily  experienced  by  many  draftsmen,  and  in  the  following  pages  the  writer  has  endeavored  tos 
set  forth  the  proper  methods  of  forming  purely  free-hand  lettering  in  a  simple,  easily  acquired  way,  giving,  at  the  same 
time,  the  proper  safeguards  against  the  errors  most  commonly  committed.  The  letters  exhibited  are  actual  free-hand 
work  and  can  readily  be  copied.  In  this  respect  the  writer  has  made  a  radical  departure  from  works  of  a  similar  charac- 
ter which  generally  give  ornate,  carefully  engraved  alphabets,  being  of  little  more  use  to  the  average  draftsman  than 
ordinary  printed  type,  i.  e.,  they  can  only  be  copied  with  a  great  sacrifice  of  time  and  patience.  The  whole  system  out- 
lined is  the  result  of  the  writer's  experience  during  years  of  practice  on  the  staff  of  a  leading  technical  journal  and  is  in- 
tended to  be  a  thoroughly  practical  guide  for  doing  the  best  class  of  work  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 

BBOOKLYN,  September,  1895. 

CHAS.  W.  EEINHAEDT. 


271359 


PREFACE  TO  TWELFTH  EDITION. 

The  encouraging  reception  given  to  former  editions  of  this  book  has  convinced  the  writer  of  the  practical  use- 
fulness of  the  system  of  lettering  which  he  advocates,  and  has  induced  him  to  add  material  which  tends  to  enlarge 
the  scope  of  the  book,  making  it  complete  in  every  respect. 

The  subject  of  lettering,  as  applied  to  working  drawings  and  the  construction  of  titles,  has  been  taken  up 
more  in  detail,  and  the  chapter  devoted  to  lettering  for  purposes  of  photo-reproduction  will  be  found  interesting  and 
useful  by  many  readers.  Besides  the  extension  of  the  text  some  twelve  illustrations  and  four  full  page  plates 
have  also  been  added,  thus  considerably  enlarging  the  work,  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  continue  to  prove  a  desirable 
hand-book  to  those  wishing  to  acquire  the  art  of  freehand  lettering  in  a  simple  and  rational  way. 

C.  W.  B. 


INCLINED     LETTERING. 


TN  the  following  system  of  lettering  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  imitate  any  special  form  of  printed 
alphabet,  and  for  all  ornate  and  elaborate  lettering  the 
draftsman  is  referred  to  some  one  of  the  many  published 
collections  of  this  character.  What  is  here  intended  is 
to  illustrate  and  describe  a  type  of  lettering  that  looks 
well  upon  working  drawings  ;  is  reduced  to  its  simplest 
form  ;  one  that  is  rapidly  made  and  is  clear  and  distinct 
under  almost  any  reduction  by  photography.  It  is,  in 
fact,  especially  designed  for  photo-reproduction.  With 
the  purpose  of  fairly  treating  the  subject,  the  lettering 
here  illustrated  has  been  reproduced  without  any  attempt 
at  touching  up  or  cleaning;  it  is  actual  freehand  work, 
such  as  should  be  used  in  general  practice. 

The  ordinary  slanting  and,  further  on,  the  upright 
lettering  are  described  in  a  somewhat  detailed  manner, 
as  when  the  draftsman  once  becomes  proficient  in  form- 


ing these  two  types  properly,  it  will  then  be  a  very  easy 
matter  for  him  to  form  also  the  more  ornamental  letters 
satisfactory.  The  first  requisite  is  to  produce  sharp, 
clean  corners  and  bold  lines  of  uniform  strength,  and 
this  is  especially  necessary  in  work  for  photo-reproduc- 
tion, as  usually  such  apparently  unimportant  things  as 
filled  in  corners  and  uneven  lines  are  greatly  exaggerated 
on  the  plate.  In  Fig.  i  the  correct  and  incorrect  ways 
of  doing  this  are  shown.  It  will  be  well  at  first,  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  clean  corners,  to  resort  to  the 

artifice  of  slightly  curving 
Incorrect  ~*        the  lines  outwards  at  their 

One.  Stroke  Lettering   ends- as  exhibited  °n  th« 

Correct  third  line  of  Fig.  i.     For 

One  Stroke  Lettering  very  large  letters  the  writer 

Fig.  1  finds  a    "  ball-point "  pen 

(Leonardt's  5 1 6  F.)  most  satisfactory  ;  for  medium  sized 


One  Stroke  Lettering 

Inrnrrpfh  J 


letters,  not  less  than  2  millimeters  high,  he  uses  Soen- 
necken's  No.  108  or  208,  and  for  small  sized  letters,  Gil- 
lott's  No.  303,  or  the  "  Lithographic  "  pen.  Esterbrook's 
pens;  "Fine  Business  97,"  "Double  Spring  126"  or 
"  127"  have  also  been  found  serviceable  for  coarser  work. 
All  of  these  pens  should  be  "broken- in  "  somewhat  be- 
fore being  applied  to  lettering  ;  they  should  also  be  fre- 
quently cleaned  when  using  waterproof  ink,  especially 
the  "Soennecken"  pens.  The  nibs  of  the  pen  should, 
while  doing  this,  be  worked  back  and  forth  gently  against 
a  soft  rag,  which  process  will  cause  the  dried  up  parti- 
cles of  the  ink  to  drop  out  from  between  them. 

As  to  the  type  of  lettering  to  be  employed,  the  slant- 
ing letter  is  well  adapted  to  descriptive  matter,  dimensions, 
etc.,  while  the  upright  letter  will  contrast  well  with  the 
former  type  used  as  reference  letters  or  sub- captions.  A 
uniform  pressure  should  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
pen — a  trick  only  acquired  by  practice.  The  pen  should 
be  held  pointed  forward,  as  in  ordinary  writing,  and  not 
sideways,  as  in  "  round  writing."  In  lettering  on  tracing 
linen  a  sheet  of  black  cross-section  paper  divided  to 
millimeters,  such  as  given  on  detached  plate  (XIII)  ac- 
companying this  book,  will  be  found  useful  for  indicating 


the  proper  spacing,  slant,  etc.  On  drawing  paper,  pen- 
cil guide-lines  will  be  indispensable  to  the  beginner. 

A  slope  of  i  to  2  yz  is  sufficient  for  the  stems  or 
down-strokes  of  the  letters,  and  ordinarily  an  angle  of 
45°  with  the  horizontal  will  suffice  for  the  upstrokes  and 
the  axis  of  ellipses,  excepting  that  of  the  letter  "  o." 
The  latter  angle  will  have  to  be  increased,  of  course, 
when  the  lettering  is  compressed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
In  lower  case  letters,  like  "  b"  or  "  p"  with  part  extend- 
ing above  or  below  the 

wj  main  body   of  the    letter- 


compressea- 


Fig.  2. 


the  length  of  these  parts 
I  should   be   about   2-=;  the 

/  ^ 

E  total  height  ;  the  body  of 
the  letter  representing  3 
parts  of  the  total  height- 
The  exception  is  the  lower  case  "t"  which  is  one 
part  less  in  total  height  than  "  b "  or  "  h,"  for 
example.  In  the  illustrations  following,  the  incor- 
rect forms  of  letters,  as  being  constantly  observed 
by  the  writer,  are  shown  in  brackets,  and  the 
correct  method  of  forming  each  letter  is  shown 
beneath. 


Lower    Case    Letters. 


The  letters  "  n  "  and  "  m,"  Fig.  3,  should  be  made 
with  almost  sharp  upper 


corners  ;     '<  u  "     is    best   j 

formed  by  three  strokes,  .Lg—        1*43  .i?. 

.,    .  »r  MMM  MJf 

as    in   this    way  parallel    : 

positions  are  secured  for  Fig.  3. 

the  straight  lines,  which  should  be  made  first,  and  these 

can  be  then  joined  by  a  lower  curve.     In   forming  the 

letter  "  v,"  Fig.  4,  make  the  first  stroke  nearly  vertical, 

.   and   the    second   at  an   anele   of 


about    45°     with    the    horizontal. 

'  g  ;  *  ;   The    common    error    in    making 

:   this  letter  lies  in  curving  the  two 
Fig.  4  lines    and    giving  the    letter   the 

appearance  of  a  "y."     The  letter  "w"  is  formed  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  "  v."     In  putting  in  the  short  hori- 
zontal cross-line  of  the 
"t,"  Fig.   5,  great  care 


should  be  taken  to  use 


Fig.  5. 


very  little  pressure  upon  the  pen,   as  otherwise  the  ink 


h  h 


1 1  \  if-. 


i   u. 


will  spread  at  the  intersection  of  the  two  lines  and  make 
clean  corners  impossible.  The  second  part  of  the 
letter  "  r "  should  be  purely  an  up-stroke,  slightly 
curved  at  its  end.  In  making  the  letter  "  f,"  start  with 
a  curve  extending  down  about  one  space  ;  the  "f "  shown 
in  brackets  would  come  out  with  a  heavy  black  knob 

at  top  in  any  considerable  re- 
duction.    The  rule  laid  down 
Fig.  6.  for  forming  the  "  n"    may  also 

be  applied  to  the  letter  "  h,"  Fig.  6,  and  the  down-stroke 
for  the  "j  "  is  practically  the  same  as  for  the  "  f "  revers- 
ed. Make  bold,  oblong  dots  over  the  "i  "  and  "j." 

The  third  stroke  of  the  letter  "  k,"   Fig.   7,   should  be 
vertical   and   begin   at  about  the        /       >.    .1. 
middle  of  the  second  stroke.      In 
constructing  the  letter  "  x,"  care  Fig.  7. 

should  be  taken  to  have  the  first  stroke  either  verti- 
cal or  leaning  slightly  backwards,  and  the  second  stroke 
ought  to  cross  the  first  a  little  above  its  centre  ;  in  order 
to  produce  a  clean  intersection  it  may  be  well  to  make 


the  latter  stroke  in  two  parts.  The  letter  "  y," 
Fig.  8,  should  be  drawn  on  the  lines  of  the  "  v,"  and 

.  from  the  point  of  the  angle 

the  tail  should  be  drawn 
pi      g  in     exact    line     with    the 

upper  down-stroke,  terminating,  if  desired,  in  a  slight 
curve  to  the  left,  to  avoid  the  little  blot  of  ink  which 
would  otherwise  form  at  the  bottom  of  the  stroke. 
In  this  letter  the  second  stroke  may  be  modified  as 
shown.  The  "z"  is  best  drawn  in  one  stroke,  stop- 
ping the  pen  every  time  before  changing  direction.  The 
letter  "  o,"  Fig.  9,  is  produced  by  two  curved  strokes, 
with  their  ends  sufficiently  bent,  forming  a  perfect  ellipse, 
the  axis  of  which  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  down-stroke. 
The  joining  of  these  two  curves,  in  this  and  similar  let- 
ters, can  be  effected  very  neatly  after  a  little  practice. 

The  ovals  of  the  following  letters  should  be  made 
somewhat  narrower  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  for 
obvious  reasons  ;  and  especial  care  must  be  taken  to 
have  the  axis  of  these  ovals  lie  at  an  angle  of  45°  with 
the  horizontal.  For  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  width 
of  the  enclosed  space  at  the  bottom  of  the  down -stroke 
and  the  oval,  the  right-hand  curve  should  be  somewhat 


flatter  than  the  opposite  one.     For    the   advantages  of 


so  doing  see  Fig.  9. 
should  be  at  ex- 
actly the  proper    0  I 
angle,  rather  in-  === 
creasing     this  = 
angle  at  the  be- 


In  these  letters  the  down -stroke 


Fig.  9. 


ginning,  for  the  learner  almost  invariably  makes  the  mis- 
take of  drawing  this  stroke  too  slanting.  To  further  guard 
against  this  error,  the  beginner  may  slightly  curve  the 
end  of  the  down-stroke  towards  the  left,  thus  widening 
the  angle  at  the  bottom  of  the  "  a  "  and  "  d,"  and  the  down- 
stroke  of  the  "  g  "  should  be  made  as  long  as  possible  in  its 
straight  part  by  turning  very  short  with  the  lower  left- 
hand  curve.  The  letters  "  p  "  and  "b,"  Fig.  10,  should 

be  siiaped  exactly  as  in- 


/ 

'  U  f 


fi- 


fn\  rr^h  /hi 

f  U/    IS    ffl-l-UJ- 


vertecl  letters  "d"  and 
"  q."  With  practice 
these  letters  can  also 
be  made  to  look  well  by 


Fig.  10. 
using  the  oval  of  the  letter  "  o." 

The  letter  "  c,"  Fig.  1 1 ,  is  formed  with  one  stroke, 
care  being  taken  to  have  its  general  direction  parallel  to 


the  down-stroke.     The  "e"  is  commenced  in  the  same 
way,  and  the  upper  loop  is  formed  by  a  second  stroke 

with  the  axis  of  the  loop 

again  at  an  angle  of  45°. 

^  The    beginning    of   the 

.if-  ^fM  f&  X  °  D 

"  s  "  is  a  very  short  curve 

F'g-  11-  from    left    to   right    at   its 

apex  ;  the  rest  is  carefully  joined  on,  turned  down  into 
a  neat  ogee  curve  and  finished  by  a  little  crook  upwards. 
The  middle  part  of  this  letter  should  be  nearly  horizontal. 
If  a  very  narrow  letter  is  to  be  produced,  it  may  be 
constructed  with  one  stroke  and  a  flatter  curve,  making 
the  upper  curve  somewhat  shorter  than  the  lower  one. 
In  the  ordinary  letter  a  first  separate  stroke  at  the  top  is 


made  necessary  by  the  fact,  that  while  turning  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction  from  right  to  left  and  then  descending 
into  the  ogee  curve,  the  pen  will  either  clog  up  and  not 
give  the  required  strength  of  line  at  one  stroke  or  other- 
wise will  in  turning  detach  minute  particles  of  paper  or 
tracing-cloth  saturated  with  ink  and  deposit  them  at  the 
side  of  the  stroke,  necessitating  erasures.  The  method 
outlined  (employing  two  strokes)  is  therefore  by  far  the 
simplest  and  quickest  way  of  producing  a  clean  letter,  as 
experience  will  show.  It  will  at  first  be  a  somewhat 
difficult  matter  to  the  beginner  to  lay  the  main  axis  of 
this  letter  parallel  with  the  down-stroke,  but  this  is 
nevertheless  an  essential  point  and  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of. 


Capital   Letters. 


As  in  the  rule  laid  down  for  the  lower  case  letters, 
the  capital  letters  will  generally  be  nve  spaces  high. 
Sharply  defined  clean  corners  are  again  necessary,  and 
to  secure  this  the  beginner  may  find  it  advantageous  to 
curve  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  down -strokes  a 
little  outwards. 


The  letter  "A,"  Fie.  12,  should  be  made  in  three 
strokes,  with    the    second 
almost  vertical.    The  cross- 
stroke  should  be  placed  low 
• — about  the  middle  of  the 


A  (Hi   LL  (L.  i   r~rr~ 


second    space    from    the    bottom. 


Fig.  12. 
The    short 


third 


stroke  of  the  "  E  "  should  be  slightly  above  the  center 
of  the  letter,  and  should  not  be  too  short.  The  two 
down-strokes  of  the  letter  "  H,"  Fig.  13,  should  be  ex- 
actly parallel,  and  the  horizontal  stroke  should  be  made 
as  directed  for  the  third  stroke  of  the  "  E."  If  the  capi- 
tal "  I  "  is  to  be  followed  by  a  lower  case  '  1,"  two  short 
horizontal  strokes  of  even  length  and  projection  may  be 

added   to   the  top  and 
bottom.      The    second 

V1^  '-  stroke     of     the     letter 

Fig.  13.  "K"   should  join    the 

first  at  the  top  of  the  second  space  from  the  bottom,  and 
the  third  stroke  should  join  the  second  nearly  one  space 
higher  up.  The  letter  "  L"  can  easily  be  made  with  one 
stroke,  analogous  to  the  forming  of  the  same  stroke  of 
the  letter  "  E." 

The  "J,"  Fig.  14,  is  commenced  as  a  perfectly 
straight  down-stroke  to  the  top  of  the  lower  space;  then 
it  turns  to  the  left  in 
a  gentle  curve,  tangent 
to  the  base  line,  and 
finally  rises  to  the  top 


ate  strokes,  putting  in  the  two  parallel  lines  first;  the  two 
other  strokes  should  join  at  the  top  of  the  first  space.  If 
desired,  this  letter  may  be  made  slightly  wider  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the  top.  The  letter  "  N  "  is  also  formed 
by  drawing  the  two  parallel  strokes  first.  The  horizon- 
tal stroke  of  the  "  T  "  should  be  neatly  balanced  on  top 
of  the  down-stroke,  and  if  it  is  not  perfectly  straight,  as 
often  is  the  case,  a  hardly  noticeable  crook  downwards 

,   ,  at  both  ends   will 

improve  it. 

i7  The    letters 

shown  in  Fig.  1 5 
are  to  be  con- 
structed precisely  upon  the  lines  laid  down  for  the  cor- 
responding lower  case  letters,  with  the  exception  that 
they  should  be  a  trifle  narrower  in  proportion.  The  "  Y" 
is  formed  with  two  strokes  without  any  lower  crook  to 
the  left ;  the  "  Z"  is  made  in  one  stroke,  with  the  axis 
of  the  letter  in 
the  direction 
of  the  down- 
stroke. 


Fig.  15. 


n  / n\  n 


M-v 


7  Jr  1 


If 


of  the  first  space.  The  "  M  "  is  made  with  four  separ-         found  easier,  this 


Fig.  6 
Z  "   can  be  made  with  three  strokes. 


10 


With  practice  the  letters  "P,"  "B"  and  "D"can  each 
be  formed  with  two  strokes,  with  the  curves  terminating 
as  shown.  In  forming  the  two  curves  of  the  letter  "  B," 
begin  at  the  top,  and  after  joining  the  stem,  return  exactly 
on  the  horizontal  while  the  ink  is  yet  moist  and  complete 
the  lower  curve.  The  space  enclosed  by  the  lower  curve 
should  be  somewhat  larger  than  that  in  the  upper  ont. 
The  curve  of  the  "  D  "  should  be  parallel  with  the  down- 
stroke  in  its  middle  third,  but  it  may  sometimes  be  ad- 
visable to  make  the  lower  part  of  the  "  D  "  a  shade  wider 
-•  than  the  upper  part.  The  first  and  second  strokes  of  the 
"  R  "  are  identical  with  the  letter  "  P." 

The  "C,"  Fig.  17,  is  formed  with  one  stroke,  nearly 
completing  the  ellipse  of  the  letter  "  O,"  though  this  let- 


ter should  be  proportionately  narrower  than  the  lower 
case  "  c."  In  making  the  "  G,"  a  somewhat  wider  ellipse 
is  required,  and  this  letter  is  most  easily  made  with  two 
strokes ;  the  second  horizontal  stroke  should  be  about 

-j —  one-half  of  the 
I  total  width  of 
I  the    ellipse. 
The    capital 


^^ 


Fi 


g.  17. 


"  O  "  should  be  an  almost  perfect  ellipse,  special  care  being 
taken  in  joining  the  two  curves.  The  third  stroke  of  the 
"  Q  "  should  begin  about  the  middle  of  the  second  space, 
and  extend  one  space  below  the  base.  The  letter  "  S  " 
can  be  formed,  for  small-sized  lettering,  in  two  strokes, 
or  with  an  additional  stroke,  as  shown,  for  larger  letters. 


Numerals. 


/  / 


As  a  rule,  numerals  should  occupy  the   same  height         is  used  in  proximity  with  "  I  "  or  "  1,"   it  is  well  to  use  a 
-]-      A—=z-?r\     /-f~?\    ~Z  /7)~? — -  as  capital    letters,         short  up-stroke  at  the  top  ;  otherwise,  it  may  be  repre- 
sented by  a  simple  down-stroke.     The  "  4  "  is  commenced 
with  the  stroke  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°,  terminating 
at  the  second  space  from  bottom  and  then  turning  sharply 


or  five  spaces, 
though  the  use  of 
fractions  may 


Fig    18. 
slightly  modify  this  rule.    When  the  numeral  "i,"  Fig.  18, 


into  the  horizontal.     The  down-stroke  should  intersect 


11 


the  horizontal  in  such  manner  as  to  leave  about  3-5  of  the 
horizontal  to  the  left  of  the  down-stroke  The  "  7  "  is  best 
formed  with  one  stroke,  the  down-stroke  being  on  an 
angle  of  45°.  The  "  3  "  should  be  drawn  in  one  stroke, 
beginning  as  with  the  "  7  "  to  a  point  a  little  below  the  top 
of  the  third  space,  and  then  curving  into  a  portion  of  an 
ellipse,  with  an  axial  angle  of  45°.  Another  type  of  the 

numeral   "  3  "    is    shown,  -.       o    O  / O  I     /""  /  Cf= 

1-1  i    •  (j      C-    f-  \  ^Lr    tl?  t<~s  / 

which  can  be  made  in  one      == 

=          ,p   £>  /£^^= 

stroke  also.  f±-    't~-  £3*^ 

^     / 

The     (f  o "    Fig.    19,  Fig.   19. 

ought  to  be  a  perfect  ellipse,  like  the  capital  "  O."  The 
"  5  "  is  commenced  with  the  down-stroke,  ending  in  the 
ellipse  of  the  "  3  "  and  the  horizontal  upper  stroke.  The 
"  2  "  can  be  constructed  by  one  stroke,  beginning  at  the 
top  of  the  fourth  space,  nearly  completing  an  oval  with 
an  axial  angle  of  45°,  and  then  turning  shortly  into  a 
down-stroke  running  into  the  base  line,  where  a  sharp 

/•.-'.-/*)    &  /ft]  SJ /£})    turn    's    made   in   a  horizontal 

direction.     The  "  6,"  Fig.   20, 

nO'       ai£j"         l^y>i-      i  js    commenced    like    the    "o," 

Fig.  20.  except  that  its  initial  point  is 

somewhat  beyond  the  axis  of  the  ellipse.     For  that  rea- 


son the  first  stroke  is  very  short,  curving  to  the  right  ; 
the  second  stroke  descends  nearly  to  the  base,  where  a  stop 
is  made,  and  the  pen  then  returns  in  the  same  stroke, 
and,  gradually  turning  to  the  right,  nearly  completes  an 
ellipse  with  an  axial  angle  of  45°,  joining  its  lower  part 
with  the  bottom  of  the  incomplete  second  stroke.  The 
figure  "  8  "  is  commenced  with  an  ogee  curve,  using  a 
slight  crook  at  its  lower  end,  and  is  finished  by  two  other 
curves,  as  shown.  The  lower  loop  should  always  be 
somewhat  larger  than  the  upper  one.  The  numeral  "  9  " 
is  made  in  two  strokes.  The  ellipse  at  the  top  is  nearly 
finished  in  one  stroke  when  the  down-stroke  is  assumed, 
which,  beginning  at  the  initial  point  of  the  ellipse  and 
completing  the  latter,  terminates  with  a  somewhat  fuller 
curve  then  that  employed  in  lower  case  l'g." 

Though  Roman  numerals  are  seldom  employed 
on  working  drawings,  they  may  sometimes  be  re- 
quired. The  chief  requisite  is  to  so  form  them  that 
they  are  neat  in  ap- 
pearance and  easily  = 
distinguished  from  the  Fig.  21. 

rest  of  the  text.  They  should  be  of  the  same  height 
as  the  Arabic  numerals,  and  short  horizontal  strokes 


12 


should  be  used  with  them,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  21. 
In  the  modified  forms  shown  in  Fig.  22  it  will  be 
noticed  that  all  the  letters  and  numerals  are  based  upon 
the  general  form  of  the  letter  "  o,"  modified  to  suit  de- 
mands. The  second  stroke  of  the  _ 
"  r  "  is  really  a  part  of  the  elemen-  —fl—P—flt  U  0  =£= 
tary  ellipse,  as  are  also  the  second 
stroke  of  the  "  n  "  and  the  second 
and  third  strokes  of  the 


'm."     The 

"  u  "   is  here  made  in  two  strokes — 
the  first,  a  down-stroke  with  the  curve  attached,  and  the 


Fig      22. 


second  a  straight  down-stroke,  tangent  to  and  touching 
the  curve. 

The  numerals  follow  similar  lines  of  construction. 
The  "  2  "  begins  at  the  upper  part  in  an  ellipse  and  ends 
in  a  down-stroke,  laid  at  an  angle  of  46°,  turning  sharply 
to  the  right  in  a  horizontal  line.  The  "  3  "  is  formed 
with  one  stroke,  with  its  lower  curve,  as  also  that  of  the 
"  5  "  and  "  6,"  encircling  somewhat  more  than  half  of  the 
ellipse.  In  the  "  6  "  and  "  9  "  care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  curved  down-strokes  only  tangent  to  the  respective 
ellipses,  and  not  cutting  off  a  portion  of  the  latter. 


UPRIGHT     LETTERING. 


Upright  lettering  is  employed  most  advantageously 
for  reference  letters,  designating  lines  of  section,  and 
for  captions.  In  some  instances  however,  it  may  be 
deemed  advisable  to  use  uprights  also  for  such  descrip- 
tive matter,  dimensions,  etc.,  to  which  some  prominence 


is  to  be  given,  though,  as  a  rule,  the  slanting  lettering 
will  answer  this  purpose  very  well. 

The  relative  height  of  the  letters  ought  to  remain 
the  same  as  that  of  the  inclined  lettering.  The  down- 
strokes  should  be  perfectly  vertical,  and  in  order  to  pro- 


duce  this  effect  properly,  it  will  be  best  for  the  beginner 
to  form  the  habit  of  making  the  letters  at  first  lean  over 
somewhat  to  the  left  at  the  top,  as  the  natural  tendency 
would  be  to  have  them  lean  the  opposite  way.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  in  some  of  the  uprights  a  comparatively 
greater  number  of  strokes  is  required,  as  many  portions  of 


these  letters  are  being  executed  in  a  horizontal  direction 
or  nearly  so.  The  letters  are  again  simplified  as  much 
as  possible,  a  fact  which  will  be  especially  notice- 
able in  the  lower  case  "a"  and  "  g,"  which,  though 
at  variance  with  the  ordinary  gothic  print,  look  fully 
as  well. 


Lower    Case    Letters. 


In  the  letters  shown  in  Fig.  23,  the  same  number 
of  strokes  is  employed  as  in  the  slanting  lettering  pre- 
viously described.  The  letters  are  as  a  rule  made  wider 
than  those  of  the  slanting  type.  The  second  stroke  of 
the  "  n  "  and  the  two  last  strokes  of  the  letter  "  m  "  are 
started  with  a  very  slight  curve  in  an  upward  direction 
rounding  off  the  corner  at  the  top,  making  it  somewhat 
more  full  than  in  the  corresponding  slanting  letters. 

The    letter    "  u " 
V  \YI  W  \W]    js  macie  in  three 

^=     VV—   :   strokes    as  usual, 
Fig.  23,.  connecting  the 

two  down-strokes  with  a  well  shaped  curve.     If  preferred, 
however,  the  ordinary  form  of  gothic  lower  case  "  u,"  as 


U  U 


y 


shown,  may  also  be  employed.  In  constructing  the 
letter  "  v,"  the  two  slanting  strokes  ought  to  make  the 
same  angle  with  the  vertical.  The  beginner  will  in- 
variably construct  the  second  stroke  at  a  greater  incline 
than  the  first,  and  will  do  well  to  guard  against  this 
habit,  until  after  some  practice  the  hand  wjll  become 
accustomed  to  form  the  point  of  juncture  of  the  two 
strokes  equidistant  from  their  starting  point.  The  letter 
"  w  "  is  composed  practically  of  two  somewhat  narrowed 


v   s. 


The  letter  "  1  "  (Fig.  24)  is  sometimes  constructed 
with  a  lower  crook  to  the  right,  when  used  at  the  side  of 
capital  letter  "  I,"  otherwise  it  is  made  as  a  down -stroke 
pure  and  simple.  The  second  stroke  of  the  "  r  "  starts 


14 


from  the  top  of  the  second  space  upwards  as  a  very 
slight  curve,  similar  to  the  one  forming  first  part  of  the 
second  stroke  of  letter  "  n."  Letter  "f"  is  best  formed 
by  three  strokes  ;  the  first  a  very  short  curve  to  the 
right,  being  joined  by  the  second  or  main  stroke.  The 

horizontal    third 
stroke  should  be 


Fig.  24. 


made  sufficient- 
ly prominent. 
The  letter  "j  "  ought  to  extend  two  spaces  below  the 
base  line  and  should  be  made  in  one  stroke,  being 
perfectly  straight  until  the  point  of  curve  is  reached.  If 
found  easier,  however,  a  second  right  hand  stroke,  form- 
ing the  curved  portion,  may  be  employed.  The  latter 
should  be  almost  a  semicircle  and  one  space  high. 

The  second  stroke 
of  letter  "  k  "  (Fig.  25) 
should  extend  down  to 
nearly  the  first  space. 
The  third  stroke  be-  F'g-  25' 

gins  at  about  the  centre  of  the  second  one.  The  letter 
"  x "  is  constructed  with  two  strokes,  making  the  first 
one  apparently  more  inclined  than  necessary  for  reasons 


explained  above.  When  the  pen  is  very  full,  the  second 
stroke  may  be  made  in  two  parts,  as  shown,  thereby 
preventing  the  forming  of  a  clot  of  ink  at  the  intersection 
of  those  two  strokes.  The  upper  part  of  letter  "  y " 
forms  a  perfect  "  v."  The  second  stroke  may  either  be 
executed  with  a  slight  angle  terminating  in  a  vertical 
direction,  or  in  a  perfectly  straight  inclined  line,  according 
to  the  draftsman's  individual  taste.  Letter  "  z "  is  as 
usual  formed  in  one  stroke  ;  its  starting  point  should 
be  vertically  above  the  point  of  turning  into  the  horizontal. 
The  ellipses  of  the  letter  shown  in  Fig.  26,  are  as 
usual  constructed  in  two  strokes,  joining  the  respective 
initial  and  terminal 
points  carefully.  The 

first  curve  starts  in  an    -  *.J( 

<(^j+ 

almost   horizontal    di- 
rection    towards     the 


m 


^'2- 


left  and  terminates  similarly  at  the  right,  thus  prevent- 
ing the  forming  of  a  point  at  the  top  and  bottom 
junctures.  The  second  (right  hand)  stroke  of  the  ellipse 
ought  to  be  made  apparently  more  curved  than  necessary, 
as  that  portion  is  invariably  made  too  flat  by  the  beginner. 
The  ellipses  should  be  made  quite  full.  The  vertical 


15 


down-strokes  of  letters  "  a,"  "  cl  "  and  "  g  "  ought  to  run 
tangent  to  their  ellipses  so  that  the  thickness  of  the 
second  curve  at  the  joint  of  juncture  is  not  increased. 
The  curved  portion  or  the  fourth  stroke  of  letter  "g" 
extends  to  the  left  almost  or  nearly  the  full  width  of  the 
oval  of  this  letter. 

The  mode  of  construction  of  letters  "  q,"  "  p  "  and  "  b  " 
(Fig.    27)   offers   no   novel   features.      If  the   pen,   while 
rounding  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  curve  of  letters  "  p  " 
and  "  b,"  should  contain  too    3 
much  ink,  the  curve  may  be 


completed  by  a  third  stroke, 


Fig.  27. 


running  in  an  opposite  direction,  as  shown,  as  in  turning 
into  the  lower  portion  of  the  curve  a  somewhat  greater 
pressure  is  involuntarily  brought  upon  the  pen,  resulting 
if  too  full,  in  a  badly  proportioned  lower  end. 


Letters  "  c  "  and  "  s  "  (Fig.  28)  are  started  with  a  short 
curve  towards  the  right  ;  the  upper  end  of  letter  "  c  " 
should  be  slightly  more  curved  than  the  lower  one  ;  still, 
the  form  of  the  perfect  oval  should  be  predominant  in  this 
letter.  The  letter  "e"  is  constructed  in  three  strokes. 
If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  upper  part  of  letters  "  c  " 
and  "  e  "  should  not  precisely  fill  the  allotted  space,  or 
otherwise  they  should  appear  too  narrow,  a  slight  flat- 
tening of  the  lower  _ 

C  C.  (CA     P.  P.  (P.  P^      ^  (*?  c.'T 
portions  of  the  curve,     ^  w  ^v*     ^  Q  \^-^l     oyjop 

making    those    letters      *C    C        S&l  6  Xp    3      = 

appear  leaning   back-  Fig.   28 

ward;  will  help  matters  and  otherwise  not  at  all  injure 
their  appearance,  as  shown.  The  completed  ovals  of 
letter  "  s  "  should,  as  in  the  inclined  one,  form  a  perfect 
figure  "8."  If  at  all  uneven,  the  lower  oval  should  be 
made  more  prominent  than  the  upper  one. 


Capital    Letters. 


Upright  capitals  are,  as  a  rule,  5  spaces  high,  with  the 
exception  of  the  "  Q,"  the  appendix  of  which  ought  to 
reach  one  space  below  the  base  line.  These  letters 


should  be  made  narrower  in    proportion  than  the  cor- 
responding lower  case  letters. 

The  second  stroke  of  letter   "A"   (Fig.   29),   should 


16 


be  made  rather  more  inclined  than  the  first  one  by 
the  beginner.  The  first  strokes  of  letters  "  E "  and 
"  F  "  must  be  made  perfectly  vertical  or  leaning  back- 
wards, as  even  the  slightest  inclination  forward  in  these 
two  letters  will  be  painfully  noticeable,  especially  in  the 
"  F."  The  length  of  the  short  third  stroke  in  the  "  F," 
is  generally  depending  on  the  shape  of  the  succeeding 
.  .  —,_ .  —.,—.  —-, — -TY-  (lower  case)  letter ; 

shorter,  if  the  latter 
j/v?  tr~_  !i~  h/\      E 

— T&3? —  — ip?  h3          ;vLi begins  with  a  verti- 

Flg.  29.  cal  stroke,    longer, 

if  an  oval  or  inclined  stroke  is  to  follow.  We  will  not 
attempt,  however,  to  lay  down  any  definite  rule  on  this 
point,  as  the  determining  factor  in  each  case  should  be 
the  draftsman's  eye  and  good  taste.  Letter  "  Z "  is 
best  formed  in  one  stroke,  care  being  taken  to  make 
especially  the  inclined  portion  perfectly  straight. 

The  letters  comprising  Fig.  30  are  constructed  upon 
nearly      the      same   : 
principles   given   in   : 
the  case  of  the  cor- 
responding slanting 
capital  letters.     The 


ft 


t 


1 


Fist.  30. 
termination    of  the  last  stroke  of 


letter  "  K  "  should  in  a  well  formed  letter  be  vertically 
below  the  initial  point  of  the  second  stroke.  The  length  of 
the  horizontal  portion  of  the  "  L"  is  again,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  "  F,"  determined  by  the  succeeding  (lower  case) 
letter.  It  is  obvious,  that  by  unduly  lengthening  that 
portion  of  the  letter,  an  unproportionally  wide  space  will 
result  between  its  vertical  part  and  the  succeeding  letter. 
The  curved  part  of  letter  "J  "  (Fig.  31)  ought  to  be  a 
well  shaped  semicircle,  beginning  and  ending  not  above 
the  middle  of  the  second  space.  The  second  and  third 
strokes  of  letter  "M"  converge  at  the  second  line,  and 
this  point  should,  of  course,  be  at  an  even  distance  from  the 
vertical  stroke, 


m 


To  attain  this  end  _ 

exactly,     some; 

draftsmen  will  per-  Fig.   31. 

haps  find  it  easier  to  put  in  the  two  verticals  first  and  the 

oblique  strokes  afterwards,  as  in  the  construction  of  the 

letter  "  N."     The  angles  in  those  two  letters  should  be 

sharply  defined,  the  strokes  forming  them  ending  in  a 

clearly  cut,  though  somewhat  blunt  point.     The  second 

horizontal   stroke   of  letter    "  T  "    ought    to   be    evenly 

balanced  upon  the  main  or  down-stroke. 


17 


The  construction  of  the  letters  shown  in  Fig.  32  is 
chiefly  guided  by  the  principle  that  the  rate  of  inclina- 
tion of  the  slanting  strokes  should  be  uniform  in  each 

In  the  case  of 


32. 


the  "V"  and  "  W" 
care  should  be  taken 
that  only  the  center 
lines  of  the  inclined  strokes  join  at  the  base  or  top 
lines  of  the  ruling,  thus  avoiding  two  extremes,  either 
the  formation  of  a  vertical  short  end  or  the  reverse,  a 
flattened-out  point.  This  is  made  apparent  in  the 
small  illustration,  Fig.  320.  The 
first  and  fourth  strokes  of  letter 
"  W"  ought  theoretically  to  be  made 
parallel  to  the  second  and  third;  pig 


Incorrect^, 


but  as  the  latter  two  strokes  are  involuntarily  made 
more  upright  than  the  first  one,  the  fourth  stroke  should 
again  be  made  more  slanting  to  correspond  with  the  first. 
The  reverse  mode  of  procedure  would  result  in  a  badly 
shaped  letter,  as  shown  in  brackets.  Letter  "  X  "  is 
usually  made  in  two  strokes,  or,  if  preferable,  a  stop  may 
be  made  in  the  second  stroke  shortly  before  crossing  the 
first,  continuing  it  on  the  other  side,  avoiding  thus  the 


forming  of  a  lump  of  ink  at  the  point  of  intersection. 
The  two  inclined  parts  of  letter  "  Y  "  should  join  on  the 
top  of  the  second  space  ;  from  there  the  second  stroke 
is  continued  in  a  vertical  direction  down  to  the  base  line. 
Letter  "  P  "  (Fig.  33)  is  constructed  in  two  strokes, 
the  second  one  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  first,  care- 
fully round- 

ingthe  curve 

ni  "v?         '.r?)3  il"^V"        H!^)a          \\  \ 

and    joining  =  =^j>s=      *U      zJEfen      U; 

the       fi  r  s  t  Fig.  33. 

stroke  again  at  right  angles  as  a  perfectly  straight 
line.  The  third  stroke  of  letter  "B"  begins  at  the 
point  of  curve  of  the  second,  enclosing  a  slightly 
larger  area  than  the  second  one.  The  second  stroke 
of  letter  "  D "  should  begin  and  terminate  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction.  If  a  slight  "  sagging  "  should  happen 
in  the  curve,  it  ought  to  be  near  its  lower  portion. 
The  rule  given  for  the  forming  of  the  second  stroke  of 
letter  "  B  "  applies  also  to  letter  "  R;"  its  third  inclined 
stroke  begins  at  the  point  of  curve  of  the  second. 
The  two  vertical  strokes  of  letter  "  U  "  are  made  first ; 
a  right  hand  carefully  formed  semi-circular  curve  con- 
nects the  two. 


18 


Letter  "  C"  (Fig.  34)  is  made  with  two  strokes,  and  is 
simply  a  repetition   of  the   lower   case  letter,   relatively 
narrower.     The  second  stroke  of  letter  "  G  "  follows  the 
outline  of  the 
ellipse 

wards    near-  ^t/^S  ,'^,      V"Vf       [Qf     *.QziI 

ly    a    space  ;  ~  ^^ 

there  a  short 

stop  is  made  and  the  pen  point  is  carefully  pushed  up- 
wards in  a  vertical  direction,  terminating  that  stroke  as 
shown.  The  final  horizontal  stroke  should  not  be  made 
too  short.  To  those  who  might  find  it  difficult  to  exe- 


cute  the  second  stroke  neatly  in  the  way  outlined  the 
suggestion  of  a  separate  vertical  downward  stroke  is 
made.  The  mode  of  construction  of  the  ellipses  of  the 
"O"  and  "Q"  differ  somewhat  from  that  of  the  lower 
case  letters  ;  the  point  of  juncture  is  shifted  diagonally  in 
order  to  lessen  the  chance  of  a  point  forming  at  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  oval.  The  third  stroke  of  letter 
"Q"  begins  as  shown,  and  extends  one  space  below. 
The  second  stroke  of  letter  "  S  "  should  for  a  very  short 
space  run  perfectly  horizontal.  The  rules  given  for  the 
forming  of  the  lower  case  letter  otherwise  apply  to  this 
letter  also. 


Numerals. 


I 


Upright  numerals  ought  to  be  like  the  inclined  ones, 
five  spaces  high.  Figure  "  i  "  may  again,  if  used  in 
proximity  with 
capital  letter  "I" 

i  =P=  -yzif •:-"•       r  •••!/ —  ""rf^  v<  : 

or    lower    case         I        ^fr  /       / &—<£_:' 

"1,"      be     con-  Fig.  35. 

structed  with  a  very  short  upstroke.     Numeral  "  4  "  is 

started  with  a  perfectly  straight  inclined  downstroke,  as 


shown,  whence  it  assumes  a  horizontal  direction.  The  rule 
given  above  and  illustrated  by  Fig.  32^  on  the  forming  of 
a  clear  cut  angle,  applies  to  the  top  part  of  this  figure  espec- 
ially. The  lower  terminal  point  of  numeral  "  7  "  should, 
in  a  perfectly  formed  figure,  be  vertically  below  the  center 
of  the  horizontal  portion.  The  upper  part  of  numeral  "2" 
ought  to  form  portion  of  a  flattened  oval.  The  mode  of 
its  construction  is  clearly  shown  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  36. 


19 


Numeral  "  5  "  (Fig.  36)  begins  with  a  vertical  stroke 
to  nearly  the  middle  of  the  third  space;  from  there 
the  stroke  follows  the  outline  of  the  ellipse,  which  is  to 
be  three  spaces  high.  The  middle  portion  of  the  second 
stroke  of  numeral  "6"  ought  to  follow  the  vertical 
direction  a  short 
distance,  as  the 
general  tendency 
in  constructing  this  Fig.  36 

figure  is  to  have  that  part  too  much  curved.  The  third 
stroke  ought  to  enclose  a  perfect  ellipse.  Numeral  "  8  " 
is  formed  in  three  strokes ;  its  first  a  well-shaped  ogee 
curve,  with  its  middle  portion  running  very  nearly 
horizontal.  The  first  stroke  of  numeral  "  9  "  ought  to 


be  part  of  a  perfect  ellipse  and  comprising  as  it  does, 
nearly    two-thirds    of    its   -circumference,    is    somewhat 
difficult  to  construct.     The  middle  portion  of  the  second 
stroke  should  for  a  short  distance,  run  almost  vertical. 
The  upright  - 


X 


Roman    num-  - 
erals,  Fig.  37,  Fig.  37. 

are  constructed,  analogous  to  the  inclined  ones,  with 
upper  and  lower  short  horizontal  strokes.  After  explain- 
ing the  mode  of  forming  of  capital  letters  "  V  "  and  "  X," 
nothing  new  can  be  said  concerning  these,  except  that 
as  a  general  rule  it  will  be  well  to  make  them  a  trifle 
narrower  in  proportion. 


Extended  Form  of  Upright  Lettering. 


In  the  following  illustration,  Fig.  38,  the  upright  letter- 
ing is  shown  in  extended  form.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
for  the  construction  of  some  of  those  letters  a  compara- 
tively greater  number  of  strokes  is  required.  The  axes 
of  the  ellipses  lie  in  a  horizontal  direction  in  every  case, 
and  it  will  be  well  to  shape  parts  of  the  curves,  composing 


them,  decidedly  flat,  sometimes  going  to  the  extreme  to 
have  the  top  and  bottom  parts  of  the  ellipses  running 
perfectly  straight  for  a  certain  distance. 

The  complete  alphabets  of  the  slanting  and  upright 
type  are  shown  in  Plate  I.,  together  with  samples  of 
lettering  as  used  on  working  drawings.  The  single 


20 


letters,  composing  a  word,  should,  especially  in  slanting          Sufficient  space    should    be    allotted    between    different 
lettering,  be  placed  as  close  as  possible,  so  close,  in  fact,         words.     Of  all  the  theories  set  forth  upon  the  spacing 


Jk.     .i 


1  1          ia  —  i  —  -n-  -  1  1     ,\f  -  ,- 


-x  ^T>      m 


v      V 


Fig.  38. 

that   they  sometimes   nearly  touch  each  other.     If  this  of  lettering    the   writer  has  found   that    no    one    really 

principle  is  followed  out  at  first,  the  golden  middle  gov-  "  works  "    in    practice  ;   therefore   he    would   advise  the 

erning    the    spacing   of  letters   will   soon   prevail.     The  draftsman  to  depend  solely  upon  his  eye  in  determining 

beginner    generally    spaces    his     letters    too     far    apart.  the  proper  space.     The  spacing  of  a  word  for  instance, 


21 


should  be  so  arranged  that,  when  the  drawing  is  held  at 

some    distance,    or  is    looked  at  with  half  closed  eyes, 

no  unusually  large 

white  space  appears 

between  letters,  as 

shown  for  example  ONLY     STANDARD, 

in    Fig.    390,  Which,  (Corrected.) 

an  actual  specimen  Fig.  39. 

of    printed    type,    demonstrates   the    fallacy    of   one    of 


the  theories  upon  spacing,  and  should  appear  corrected 
as  in  Fig.  39^,  showing,  as  it  were,  a  more  even  tone 
of  coloring. 

In  expressing  fractions,  the  accepted  custom  is  to  place 
a  horizontal  dash  between  numerator  and  denominator, 
excepting  the  instance  when  numeral  "  4  "  happen  to  be 
the  latter,  in  which  case,  for  obvious  reasons,  a  slanting 
dash  is  employed.  The  several  lines  of  lettering  compos- 
ing a  sentence,  for  instance,  should  be  placed  rather  close. 


Freehand  Lettering  applied  to  Working  Drawings. 

Lettering  as  applied  to  working  drawings,  should  be         side,  and  a  dotted  reference  line  with  arrow  head  point- 
bold,    clear   and    uniform    in    size,   with 
the  exception  of  the  sub-captions,  which 
may  be  a  trifle  larger.     Diminutive  and     t.35/|>|" 
cramped    lettering    on    a   drawing    will  15; 
If  possible,  the  letter- 


never  look  well, 
ing  should  be  kept  distinctly  by  itself  and 
never  be  allowed  to  run  across  line?. 
If  some  words  can  not  be  put  on  the  ob- 
ject itself,  which  they  are  intended  to  des- 
cribe, they  should  be  boldly  placed  out- 


Ends. 


22 


ing  to  the  subject  attached,  as  shown  especially  in   Figs.         dimension    lines,   and    an    appropriate    space    left 


40,  41  and  42.  The  lettering 
read  from  the  base 
and  right  hand  side 
of  the  sheet,  that 
is  to  say,  lettering 
running  at  an  angle 
of  90°  to  the  base 
line  should  be  made 
to  read  from  the 
right  hand  side,  if 
at  a  greater  angle, 
its  base  should  be 
reversed  in  such  a 
way  that  it  can  be 
read  from  the  lower 
left  hand  corner;  if 
the  angle  be  small- 
er, one  should  then 
be  enabled  to  read 
it  from  the  lower 


should  be  placed  so  as  to          while  drawing  those. 


rT.!fo"i 


Details  of  Long  Raising  Girder 
and  Truss  Connection. 


Fig.  41. 


open 

If  the  space  allotted  for  a  dimen- 
sion is  too  small 
to  place  the  same 
comfortably  be- 
tween arrow  heads, 

Dislriliuling  Girder,  eKlvsiw      ,  i  r  i          11 

the  figures  should 
be  written  outside, 
parallel  to  dimen- 
sion line,  and  refer- 
ence line  used. 
Arrow  heads 
should  be  bold, 
with  even  sides, 
the  two  strokes 
composing  them 
tapering  in  thick- 
ness from  the  point; 
"  lop  sided  "  ones 
should  be  avoided. 
The  length  of 


\i  ]      ^^ 

^  I  °° 

o  :§;    3 

F/oorTrvtafff\. 
WutfKISLii't™ 

1    N*S 

TsflBott^f-i^S. 

Amw»f>»^ 
^ 

-* 

f.  ,    n 

»• 
t 

* 

'y 

-K 


,7T 
Xiru 


s 


i_  .y. 


Cross  Section, 


right  hand  corner,  as  Fig.  44  demonstrates.  the  arrow  heads  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  dimension 

Dimensions  should  be  placed  between,  not  on  top  of         numerals,  which  are  to  go  between  them ;  at  any  rate, 


23 


the  numerals  themselves  should  stand  out  free  and  not 
touch  the  former.  Where  the  space  does  not  permit 
this,  the  reversed  arrow  heads  may  be.  used,  so  as  to 
leave  a  clear  space  between  them,  as  shown,  for  instance, 
at  left  of  Fig.  40,  in  second  row  of  dimensions  from  be- 
low. In  the  same  figure  the  relative  size  of  upright 


an  inset  sheet  in  "Engineering  News'"  and  yet  shows 
the  lettering  of  the  strain-sheet  legible,  sharp  and  clean 
cut,  even  under  a  magnifying  glass.  The  pin  points,  as 
shown,  are  also  made  prominent  by  using  upright  refer- 
ence letters.  Similar  prominence  may  be  given,  for  in- 
stance, to  portions  of  a  building,  as  shown  in  Plate  XI 


•a*r      S0"'*       °"'*    ^•P!'MS' 

V  *  fr .    ^^^^^•JH^B^^^^^H 


«*•«*!*.    E i22'iok"overall(B<xktvB<KkofEnal5Hff.Ls.) 


Fig.  42. 


lettering,  as  used  for  captions  and  sub-captions  is  shown. 
In  Fig.  44  and  on  Plate  III,  upright  lettering  is  also  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  strains  for  the  respective  members, 
in  order  to  have  same  appear  distinctly  different  from 
ordinary  dimensions  or  descriptive  matter.  This  plate 
has  been  considerably  reduced  in  size  from  a  drawing  for 


on  plan  of  station  building.  Notes  referring  to  draw- 
ings should  run  parallel  to  base  of  sheet  and  be  used  as 
"  fillers." 

In  Fig.  43  and  Plate  II,  lettering  as  used  on  sketch 
maps  is  shown.  Here  four  distinctive  styles,  composed 
of  the  two  alphabets  above  described,  are  employed. 


24 


The  writer    recommends,  in    such  a  case,  to  have  the 

physical  features  of  a  map,  such  as  creeks,  rivers,  lakes, 

mountains,  bays,  inlets,  denoted  by  "  all  cap  "  slanting 

letters  ;  proposed  engineering  works  in  "  caps  and  lower 

case  "  of  the  same  type  ;  villages,  railway  lines,  stations 

in  "  cap  and  lower 

case  "  upright  let- 

tering ;     finally, 

counties,  townships 

or    cities     in     "  all 

caps,"     upright. 

These     rules     are 

all,  of  course,  sub- 

ject to  more  or  less 

modification,  as  oc- 

casionally  contour 

lines,       soundings, 

etc.,  may  also  be  designated  in  small  upright  numerals. 

Plate   II  illustrates  the  above  said  very  well.     Letters 

relating  to  rivers  and  railway  lines  should  be  placed 

parallel  to  those  objects.    Otherwise,  lettering  in  straight 

lines  is  resorted  to.     If  this  should,  however,  be  imprac- 

ticable, lettering  in  neat  curves  is  used. 


Profiles  of  railway  lines,  etc.,  may  be  treated  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner  ;  the  margin  figures  denoting  vertical  and 
horizontal  scales,  should,  however,  be  placed  in  uprights 
and  be  written  outside,  not  upon  the  lines  of  the  scale. 
The  use  cf  the  four  distinct  types  of  lettering  will  at 

once  allow  an  easier 
reading  of  the  pro- 
file. A  good  ex- 
ample of  this  kind 
is  given  in  Fig.  ^5. 
The  arrange- 
ment of  margin 
figures  here  will 
permit  the  approx- 
imate elevation  of 
any  desired  point 
easily  to  be  ascer- 
tained by  laying  a  rule  across  the  vertical  scales,  its 
upper  edge  touching  the  point  in  question.  In  Fig. 
46,  the  general  style  of  lettering  a  diagram  is  shown. 
The  margin  figures  again  are  uprights,  set  opposite,  not 
upon  the  lines,  which  they  are  to  designate.  The  letter- 
ing of  the  curves,  being  of  a  descriptive  character,  is 


25 


done  in  the  slanting  type.  Since  this  lettering  has  to  run 
across  the  ordinates  and  abscissae  of  the  diagram,  great 
care  has  to  be  exercised  to  keep  same  open  and  clear, 
especially  avoiding  filled  in  corners. 

Examples  of  simple  and  also  slightly  more  elaborate 
meridians  and  scales  are  given  on  Plate  XII.  All  of  the 
former  are  easy  to  construct  and  will  look  neat  on  any 


well  finished  map.  The  lower  two  scales  are  best 
adapted  for  map  work,  although  the  upper  one,  in- 
tended for  ordinary  working  drawings,  can  also  very 
well  be  used  for  that  purpose.  In  constructing  the 
simpler  type  of  scales  it  is  advisable  to  employ  four 
different  heights  of  graduation  lines,  a  method  which 
will  materially  increase  its  clearness. 


VARIOUS     FREEHAND     ALPHABETS. 


The  principles  of  construction  of  the  shaded  inclined 
(Italic)  lettering,  shown  on  Plate  IV,  which  is  occasion- 
ally used  on  working  drawings  and  maps,  are  practically 
the  same  as  given  for  the  ordinary  (Gothic)  slanting  let- 
tering. The  relative  height  of  letters  and  inclination 
of  down-stroke  remain  unchanged.  A  fairly  fine  point- 
ed rather  flexible  pen  should  be  used,  such  as  Gillott's 
No.  303  or  No.  290  (Gillott's  lithographic  pen).  The 
lower  case  letters  are  very  much  like  common  English 
shaded  script.  The  shading  is  produced  by  an  even 
pressure  exerted  upon  the  pen,  which  in  turning  into 
curves,  is  gradually  released  at  the  proper  moment.  In 
shading  letters  "  S  "  and  numerals  "  2,"  "  7  "  and  "  8  " 


the  pen  has  to  outline  and  shade  the  curves  at  the  same 
time,  necessitating  a  slight  turning  motion  of  the  holder, 
to  the  beginner  a  somewhat  delicate  operation  at  first. 
It  will  be  noticed,  that  every  second  row  in  the  upper 
portion  of  this  plate  is  devoted  to  demonstrating  the 
proper  method  of  forming  each  letter  and  the  sequence 
of  strokes.  Italic  lettering,  in  order  to  look  well,  re- 
quires a  considerably  wider  spacing  than  the  ordinary 
slanting  lettering,  the  hair  line  upstrokes  in  most  of  the 
lower  case  letters  adding  to  their  width.  After  all  that 
has  been  said  about  slanting  lettering  in  general,  no 
trouble  will  be  experienced  in  constructing  these  letters 
satisfactorily. 


26 


When  reduced  considerably,  Italic  lettering,  as  a  rule, 
does  not  show  up  so  well  as  the  same  size  of  the  slanting 
Gothic  type  described  before,  the  light  lines  in  that  case 
dropping  out,  thus  leaving  only  the  shaded  portions  vis- 
ible. 

The  type  of  lettering  shown  in  lower  part  of  Plate  IV, 
is  in  fact  only  a  modification  of  the  ordinary  upright 


shown  on  Plate  V.     As  is  known  to  every  draftsman,  a 
lump  of  ink  is  apt  to  form  at  the  end  of  a  straight  stroke, 


Oiasef 


520 "0" 


Half       Side       Elevation . 
Fig.   44. 


freehand  lettering,  and  used  as  a  part  of  title  looks  very          when  the  pen  is  fairly  full.     This  propensity  of  the  ink 
well  when  used  with  the  black  faced  Gothic  lettering,          is  made  use  of  in  constructing  this  type  of  lettering  and 


27 


the  flow  of  ink  thus  diverted.  The  relative  number  of 
strokes  remains  the  same,  as  with  the  ordinary  upright 
style.  A  few  modifications  are  introduced  in  the  shape 


+JOO-J 
+150- 
+100'- 
+50- 


-lOO'-i 


-ax>- 

-2SK 


-300'^ 


/Bulls  Ferry  Rood 


Rxkor  Boulder'*, 

...,  EI.-IS}.--' 
KtxkorKaalcler 


of  which  have  been  exhaustively  explained  in  the  fore- 
going, will  experience  no  trouble  whatever  in  sketching 
these  letters  in  good  shape.  As  shown,  the  relative 
height  of  lower  case  and  capital  letters 
remains  unchanged  ;  the  width  of  the 
stem  of  the  capital  maybe  taken  as  4-5, 
in  some  cases  7-8,  that  of  the  lower 
case  letters  as  3-5  the  width  of  a  square. 

'•ft 


-*!00 

.  NEW  YORK,     i  -*I50' 
I    -*IOO' 


--100' 
—ISO' 
-200' 
--Z501 
-300' 


1000' 


Fig.  45. 

of  lower  case  "  a  "  and  "  g."  This  lettering  is  best  pro- 
duced with  a  ball  point  pen,  insuring  a  stroke  of  almost 
uniform  strength.  As  a  precaution,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  pen  should  never  be  too  full  while  making  this  type 
of  lettering. 

Plates  V  to  VII  inclusive,  contain  Freehand  Letter- 
ing suitable  for  main  titles,  which  may  easily  be  con- 
structed by  dividing  the  space  to  be  lettered  into  squares 
and  sketching  in  the  letters  in  outline  afterwards,  as 
shown  ;  on  tracing  linen,  cross-section  paper  may  of 
course  be  used  for  this  purpose.  A  draftsman  able  to 
satisfactorily  construct  the  upright  lettering,  the  principles 


Doll. 


6000'  7000' 

On  Plate  V  sug- 
gestions are 
made  as  to  sev- 
eral methods  of 
shading  these 
letters,  although, 
as  a  rule,  they 
look  very  well 
without  it. 
When  this  kind 
of  lettering  is  de- 
sired to  be  of  medium  or  small  size,  it  can  neatly  and 


e  s    • 

cJ  o:  "Z. 

Dollars 

\ 

>: 

| 

.,' 

• 

\ 

/ 

^ 

4 

/| 

\ 

\ 

, 

,< 

// 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

\ 

/ 

, 

K 

\ 

. 

| 

s 

/ 

\ 

J  ?BO 

1 

/ 

\ 

\ 

- 

:- 

\ 

'-' 

1 

-  -bO. 

-"" 

? 

> 

"  -M 

' 

;: 

**• 

^ 

- 

n 

•:• 

/ 

/ 

L 

; 

/ 

> 

»*• 

. 

'-. 

a. 

1880.  1895. 

Metal  Prices  1879,  I860  and  1895. 

Fig.  46. 


28 


expeditiously  be  constructed  in  the  way  shown  by  Fig. 
470  :  Throw  in  the  stems  of  the  letters  with  a  broad 
nibbed  pen,  insuring  a  bold 

stroke  analogous    to   ordinary  WAY  IN  L, 

Gothic  upright  lettering,  with  TXTR-V./'XTT-' 

< Spurred  bat,k.)     \A/AYNr 

the  exception  of  the  horizontal  X/T.I  i it- 

strokes,  which,  together   with     (Plain  6otf,/^    \/\^YN  E 

the    tops    and  bottoms   of  the 

Fig.  47a. 
letters,  rule  in,  and  fill  in  the 

corners  freehand,  as  shown  enlarged  in  47*5.  As  is  well 
known,  short  freehand  strokes  are  somewhat  difficult  to 
draw  horizontally,  therefore  this  method  is  certainly  pre- 
ferable to  that  of  turning  the  paper,  so  as  to  permit  the 
draftsman  to  draw  these  strokes  in  the  direction  towards 
him.  If,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  draftsman  should  desire 
more  ornamental  letters,  he  will  be  able,  by  the  aid  of 
his  eye,  and  the  exercise  of  some  originality,  to  devolve 
the  letters  desired  out  of  the  types  given.  It  should, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind,  that  a  title,  composed  of 
highly  ornamented  letters,  does  not  atone  for  any  poorly 


drawn  and  lettered  sheet  to  which  it  may  be  attached, 

but  on  the    other   hand,    a   simple 

W*^£  ~Y  ~T" 
\\ 
V     V 

several  lines  composing  it,  centered, 

will  make  an  ample  heading  for  any  well  executed  draw- 
ing, and  conform  in  style  with  the  subject  represented. 
The  draftsman  is  occasionally  called  upon  to  employ  the 

Greek  Alphabet 

in  his  work.  There  seems  to  be  a  lack  of  uniformity  in 
the  construction  and  shaping  of  these  letters,  so  that  at 
times  the  "alpha"  cannot  be  distinguished  from  lower 
case  "a,"  or  the  "gamma"  from  the  "y,"  etc.  Therefore 
a  plate  (VIII)  representing  the  principles  of  construc- 
tion, of  the  slanting  Greek  letters,  analogous  to  the 
Italian  Script,  shown  upon  a  preceding  plate,  has  been 
added.  Remember,  these  letters  are  all  shaded  charac- 
ters and  must  therefore  be  drawn  with  a  flexible,  well 
pointed  pen. 


29 


LETTERING    OF    TITLES. 


On   Plates    IX    and    X  and    the   accompanying    text 
figures,  reduced  specimens  of  freehand  titles  are  given, 


..as". 


Bridge    720  B/g  /fun,  Evansi////e,  Arizona. 

M.  K.  and  77/?y.  M/DDLED/V. 
3  Spans,  5/ng/e    Track,  Throt/yh '7S-o'c.c.F/7c/P/ns. 

TOP  CHORDS  />ND  END  POSTS. 


Sco/e, 


AMERICAN  BRIDGE  CO., 


A.B.CO.  Contr.  No 
Mtdeby.kZ^T. 


EDGEMOOR   PLANT. 


In  Charge 


v    Ink  Border 


ORDER  No..>£2.3a  .'JBHEET  NQ.../.2. 


V     Gist e/ua  Print  onftij //at 


Fig.  48. 

and  pains  have  been  taken  to  present,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, different  types  of  easily  formed  and  fairly  well  bal- 


anced titles,  such  as  could  be  selected  during  the  daily 
routine  work  in  the  drafting  office  of  a  technical  journal. 
These  samples,  as  given  here,  represent  reductions 
from  originals  which  range  in  size  from  one-half  to 
nearly  one-fifth  linear  measure. 

These  specimens  exhibited  on  those  two  plates 
show  more  or  less  clearly,  that  the  prominence  which 
is  to  be  given  to  different  portions  of  a  title,  depends 
upon  the  relative  importance  of  the  lines.  The 
draftsman  is  generally  given  considerable  latitude  in 
regard  to  this  matter.  The  title  given  under  Fig. 
4g  is  one  of  the  standard  arrangements  of  the  con- 
cern named  and  shows  good  points.  The  lower  part, 
as  noticed,  is  stamped  on  the  drawing,  and  the 
blanks  are  subsequently  filled  in  by  hand. 

A  style  of  title  seldom  used  nowadays  is  that 
shown  in  Fig.  49.  The  letters  are  arranged  in 


curved  lines  and  an  ornamental,  flourished  effect  is 
sought  after.  Where  such  is  desirable,  the  general 
scheme  is  a  fairly  satisfactory  one.  - 


30 


A  few  words  in  regards  to  centering  of  titles  may  here 
be  added.  A  title  should  in  nearly  all  cases,  be  arranged 
systemetically  about  a  vertical  center  line.  After  the 
location  of  this  line  and  the  height  and  spacing  of  the 
different  lines  of  letters  have  been  determined,  the  spaces 
equal  to  the  width  of  the  letters  can  be  marked  off  with 
pencil  on  the  edge  of  a  strip  of  paper  and  the  center  of 
a  strip  placed  on  the  vertical  center  line  of  the  title,  with 


OUtlet  Sewer 


All"  INDEX  TO  MAP 


IN  —  SHEETS  ATTACHED 


Fig,  49. 

its  edge  just  below  the  line  of  letters  to  be  sketched. 
The  letters  can  then  be  penciled  in  very  readily. 

A  space  between  words  counts  as  a  letter  in  spacing, 
therefore,  a  line  containing  three  words  of  7,  3  and  6 
letters  represents  18  divisions,  so  that  9  divisions,  or  the 
first  word,  one  space  and  one  letter  of  the  second  word 
are  to  come  to  the  left  of  the  center  line,  and  the  re- 


mainder of  the  line  to  the  right.  If,  after  all,  the  spacing 
of  a  line  of  letters  needs  re-adjustment  after  the  letters 
are  penciled  in,  the  draftsman  may  easily  rectify  the 
matter  by  going  over  that  line  again,  working  first  to  the 
left  and  then  to  the  right  of  center. 

In  Fig.  50,  an  actual  fac-simile  of  a  title  once  met  with 
is  exhibited.  It  explains  in  short  how  not  to  do  it,  and 
shows  the  drafts- 
man's lack  of  prac- 
tice in  freehand 
work,  while  rely- 
ing solely  upon  his 
skill  with  bow  pen 
and  ruling  pen. 
The  writer  would 
not  consider  this 


END 


©ECTTIONAIL  VGEW 

OF 


EUREKA  DRIER 


LONGITUDINAL    SECTION 

Fig.  50, 


work  complete  without  giving  passing  notice  to 

Round  Writing, 

the  principles  of  which  are  shown  on  Plate  XI.  For  the 
production  of  this  kind  of  lettering  regular  round  writ- 
ing pens  are  used,  although  very  satisfactory  lettering  of 
this  type  can  be  produced  with  goose-quills  cut  by  the 
draftsman,  and  the  writer  even  yet  prefers  the  latter. 


31 


LETTERING   FOR    PHOTO-REPRODUCTION. 


The  lettering  and  drawing  for  reduction  purposes  may 
be  made  on  any  quality  of  drawing  paper,  tracing  linen 
or  paper.  Yellowish  tinted  papers  however,  will  as  a 
rule,  not  give  as  good  results  as  the  pure  white  or  blue- 
ish  ones.  In  order  to  insure  good,  unbroken  lines  on 
tracing  cloth  the  writer  would  recommend  the  thorough 
rubbing  of  the  surface  with  purnice  powder.  The  other 
materials  mentioned,  of  course,  require  no  special  prepa- 
ration. Erasures  on  tracing  cloth  are  also  best  made 
with  the  same  agent  ;  the  powder  is  sprinkled  upon  the 
part  to  be  erased,  and  a  little  brisk  rubbing  with  the  end 
of  the  finger  or  a  hard  rubber,  while  replacing  the  dis- 
colored pumice  with  fresh  powder,  will  thoroughly  clean 
the  effected  surface,  which  may  be  lettered  over  again 
without  danger  of  the  ink  spreading.  Where,  however, 
erasures  have  otherwise  been  made,  Chinese  white  may 
be  applied  with  a  soft  brush  over  the  discolored  parts. 
Letters  and  lines  must  be  made  perfectly  black  ;  if  very 
fine  lines  are  used  on  a  drawing,  they  will  still  reproduce 


at  considerable  reduction,  provided  each  is  formed  by  a 
solid  ridge  of  ink. 

A  good  standard  to  adopt  for  lettering  for  reproduc- 
tion is  to  have  the  smaller  lower  case  letters,  such  as 
"  a,"  "  e,"  etc.,  reduce  to  not  less  than  one  millimeter 
(slightly  more  than  -sV  in.)  in  height  ;  therefore,  if  a 
drawing  is  to  be  reduced  three-fourths,  (i.  e.,  to  one- 
fourth  its  original  length)  make  those  letters  4  times 


Freehand  Lettering 


Fig.  51a. 


ORIGINAL   FOR   THKEE-FOUETIIS   REDUCTIONS. 


ters  (about 
A  in.)  high 
with  the 
strength  of 
body  in  pro- 
portion ;  the  height  of  the  capitals  and  numerals  must  be 
in  accordance.  A  drawing  to  be  reduced  to  one  half 
size  (one-half  its  length)  has  to  contain  lettering  just 
twice  the  standard  given  above.  The  lettering  on  draw- 


32 


ings  to  be  reduced  to  a  size   about    halfways    between 
three -fourths  and  two- thirds  reduction,  should  be  made 

•  Freehand  Lettering-  2*  millimeters  (aboilt  *  in.) 

high,  minimum  size.  All 
the  foregoing  is  sufficiently 
made  clear  by  the  illustra- 


Fig.  51&. 


OEIGINAL    FOR    REPRODUCTION    BETWEEN 
ONE-HALF  AXt>   TWO-THIRDS. 


tions,  Fig.  5 1  a,  b  and  c. 


The  two   illustrations  shown  on   Plate  XII  (details  o 
rail-joint  and  section  of  reservoir)  have  been  reproduced 
from  originals  five  and 

"&' 
r  \«o 


CAST 


four  times  their  re- 
spective sizes.  Al- 
though the  draftsman 
is  supposed  to  know 
the  exact  rate  of  re- 
duction, the  directions 
to  the  engravers  are 
better  given  in  inches 
or  fractions  thereof, 
placed  in  pencil  un-  Fig.  52a. 

clerneath  ;  they  are  for  our  puposes  reproduced  on  Fig. 
5ia  and  b,  but  would,  of  course,  not  be  reproduced  by 
the  engraver  ordinarily. 


•Freehand  Lettering- 

Fig.  51c. 

BEFIiODUTICS    FROM 

EITHEB   OF  THE 
ABOVE   ORIGINALS. 


reduction  is 
one-third  its 
condensed 
on  drawings 


A  drawing  should  never  be  reduced  at  a  lesser  rate 
than  to  three-fifths  of  its  original  length.  What  may  be 
called  a  good  average 
the  two-thirds  (i.  e.,  to 
length.)  When  the 
type  of  lettering  is  used 
ior  reduction  purposes  a  proper  safeguard  to  adopt  is  to 
exaggerate  somewhat  the  width  of  ovals  or  small  loops, 
such  as  for  instance  of  the  letter  "  e,"  to  guard  against 
the  "  filling  in "  of 
those  parts.  A  close 
study  of  the  three 
types  of  lettering 
given  on  Fig.  i  of 
this  work,  which  tend 
to  illustrate  the  same 
principle,  will  also  be 
useful.  The  reason 
for  giving  a  limit  of 
reduction  (i.  e.,  one 


Nate:-  77w  Top  af~Cap  tvitt 
bt  sh'ghtfy  oval,  and  rhiCttj- 
tral  squart,  triangle,  and 
circle  will  ot  raised  about 
ering. 


Section  of 
Cost  Iron  Cap. 


Fig.  526. 


millimeter  height  for  smaller  lower  case  letters)  and  the 
employment  of  gothic  letters  of  uniform  strength,  is 
made  evident  by  referring  to  the  illustrations,  Fig.  52a, 


33 


which  presents  an  example  of  engraving,  such  as  is 
sometimes  indulged  in,  and  Fig.  5 26,  redrawn  and 
reduced  to  some  scale. 

The  strength  of  the  lines  of  a  drawing  to  be  repro- 
duced depends  of  course  altogether  upon  the  rate  of  re- 
duction. For  larger  reductions  it  will  be  quite  essential 
to  show  as  much  of  a  white  space  between  lines  as  possi- 
ble, for  instance  such  as  designates  the  thickness  of  flange 
of  an  I-beam  in  elevation.  The  work  should  in  all  cases 
be  clear  and  open,  and  this  detail,  immaterial  as  it  may 
appear,  not  be  overlooked. 

The    processes  of  photo-reproduction  ordinarily  em- 


ployed are  the  photo-  lithographic  and  zinc  etching  pro- 
cess. Both  require  a  similar  grade  of  preparation  of  the 
drawing.  The  writer  uses  on  such  drawing  the  water- 
proof ink,  which  is  perhaps  blacker  than  the  ordinary 
kind  and  possesses  more  body,  Any  kind  of  black 
drawing  ink,  however,  is  suitable  for  the  purpose  ;  well 
rubbed  stick  India  ink  will  permit  of  very  fine  black 
lines.  The  main  objection  to  the  use  of  ordinary  inks, 
however,  is  their  liability  of  blurring,  when  handled, 
or  the  ink  mixing  with  the  Chinese  white,  render- 
ing the  application  of  the  color  sometimes  very 
difficult. 


34 


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l  77 "      &  n  " 

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4L,  4  *3$  *j  x  250  Stroke  of  the  Pen. 


PLATE  I. 


Island 


Parts  of  System  not  yet  begun-          ™™™™'.™ 

ton factSectiQnsvre  indicated  by  Upright  Letters  and  Fiqwts 


PLATE 


Highest  Point  gf_R0fff_ 


*i     I'fl,  _  _ .       -^  %ft«f  Point  of  Root 
' 


^*       Vertical  Section 
at  fbirrt-31, 

Enlarged. 


Detail  Showing 

Elevation  of  Girders  and  Bracing 

at  Center  of  Trusses. 


Connections  of  Fbnel  Points  28-3], 


Section  on  LineA-B, 
Showing  Connection  of  ISXhannels 
to  Strut  5-8. 


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Freehand       '       •  '/      '  Printing 


Shaded  Inclined  (Italic)  Lettering,  Used  for  Working  Drawings. 

•X 

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ABCDEFG  HIJKLMNOPQKSTUVWXYZ 

.        ,  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10. 

Freehand  Lettering  for  Captions,  Produced  very  Fast. 

-  THROUGH  PASSENGER  SERVICED  etc. 


PLATE  IV 


PLATE  V 


PLATE  VI. 


PLATE  VII 


- 


si 


1 


I 


. 

~ 


I 


a 


S 


o  Jt 


v  (j) 


ABFAEZH  61  KAMJVZOTTP  Z  T  Y$  X  <P  ft 

jf^M  $  fj& 


GREEK    ALPHABET. 

(SCRIPT) 


Application    dg 

of 
Alphabet. 


-6% 


Posi"hi on    o.   Stream    O 


PLATE  VIII. 


Suspended    Car  Tycms^er 
5V\\p  CarvaX  - 


Appsira-t-us    for  the. 
Aeration    of   Water. 


C .  K  ,?.Turv\er 


June  I4-J9OO. 


scale  ii=»'- 


WiHiam  Wheeler, 

Consulting  Engineer, 


NORTH  GERMAN  LLOYD, 

PLANS  FOR 

PROPOSED  PI  ER  N?  3, 

(  9O  FT   WIDE.) 

HOBOKEN,  N.J. 

OCT.  1900. 


W.f\W. ..OV/I Engineer. 

Hoboken,  New  Jersey. 


Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts. 

Metropolitan  Water  Works. 

STANDARD    DETAILS 
LIFTERS     FOR     SCREENS 

- — ««•     AND  -**— 

STOP-  PLANKS. 


Full   Size 


JZP&INGEMENT  Of 

INSIDE    <SHOP//VO 


U.S.  S.  OREGON. 


—  TESTING   STATION  — 

OF  THE 

'COLUMBIAN   fIREPROOFING  CO; 

BOSTON,  MASS. 


PLATE    IX. 


COMMONWEALTH  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

METROPOLITAN   WATER   WORKS. 

WACHUSETT      DAM, 


GENERAL   PLAN  OF  DAM 
AND   APPURTENANCES. 


New  York   8c  Brooklyn     Bridqe 

Present.  Details  of  Bottom  Connections- 

Suspenders    6>c  Stays. 


ROUND  CORNER  DETAILS. 

SC/JLE  /2  INCH-=IFT. 

These  details  fbr<5.E.Corner-Similar  construction  at  N.E.comer. 


ffoowf  Oov/vrr  /f  Y.  — 


G&nero/  E/erof/on,  Cross  -S&c-hons 
sco/e  *'/*'=/&. 


Office. 
Chi'coffo 

Cfy/coyo.  0ec.30*99. 


Scale     >^in.to  I  ft. 


Sept.     I9OI. 


Approved 


PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  WORKS 
BUREAU  OF  FILTRATION 

CONTRACT  NO.  I 
FILTERS.BASINS  AND  APPURTENANCES 

INTERIOR  DRAINS 
DETAIL  PLAN  OF  ONE  FILTER 


PLATE    X. 


a/ 


/v  /w 


/a/  /V7  A/  /y  /v   /  AW  /w  o  /v  ^x 
.  12/3456789  10^  So. 


Setter 


AVI/ 


aw 


1S92/. 


PLATE  XI. 


O1        10'       20'      30' 


Baggage  Room 
H  finish  M 
,-  floor 


0  6  12 

.....  i  .....  I 


10'          £0'          30'         40'          50'          60' 


10'  20'  30'          40'          50'  60* 


Plan   of  Joint. 

O'         10'        20'        30'       40'        50' 


Meridians. 


-   PLATE     XII. 


-    ; 


-::.    t:: 


PLATE  XIII. 
Cross  Section,  Millimeters. 


STANDARD  TEXTS  FOR  DRAFTSMEN 


PUBLISHED     BY 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY,   25   Park  Place,   New  York 


A  PRACTICAL  COURSE  IN 

MECHANICAL   DRAWING 

By  \\  I  I.I.I  V  <l   FOX,    »i.  E. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Applied  Mathematics, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and 

CHARLES  W.    I  no  <|  \s.  OT.  E. 

Instructor  in  Descriptive  Geometry  and  Drawing, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York 


The  object  of  this  work  is  to  provide 
a  simple,  practical  course  of  progressive 
lessons  in  Mechanical  Drawing.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  all  instructions  are  given 
in  connection  with  a  special,  concrete 
exercise. 

No  practical  draughtsman  will  criti- 
cise us  for  not  starting  with  the  tradi- 
tional geometric  problems.  We  have 
reason  to  believe  that  the  average 
student  does  not  appreciate  these  sub- 
jects if  introduced  before  their  bearing 
and  practical  application  are  understood. 

Contents  :  USE  OF  INSTRUMENTS, 
DIMENSION  LINES,  DRAWING  TO  SCALE, 
CENTER  LINES,  DIVIDERS,  BOWPEN, 
SECTIONS,  SHADING,  LETTERING,  SCREWS, 
COG-WHEELS,  READING  OF  DRAWINGS, 
MISCELLANEOUS. 


THkKI)    EDITION    REVISED 
98  Pages,   S'OJT*  87  Illustrations 

Price.  $1.25  Net 


PART    I    NOW    READY 

7O  Pages,  6x9  Illustrated 

MACHINE    DRAFTING    AND 
EMPIRICAL  DESIGN 

A  Text  Book  for   Students   in   Engineering 

Schools,  and  others  who  are  Beginning 

the  Study  of  Drawing  as  Applied 

to  Machine  Design 

BY 

WALTER   KXiriNVIKMIH 

Adj.  Prefessor  Columbia  University 

AND 
JOHN  T.   \\  1 1. 1,1  %  »l> 

Instructor  Cornell  University 
Complete  in  Two  Parts 


Parti.  BEGINNING  DRAFTING, 
SKETCHING.ETC. — The  aim  of  the  first  part 
is  to  not  only  give  the  student  practice  in  the 
making  of  good  line  drawings,  intersections, 
the  principles  of  construction,  etc.,  but  by  a 
proper  selection  of  practical  examples  to  im- 
part to  him  information  of  a  practical  nature, 
such  as  every  designer  should  know.  A  defi- 
nite system  of  standards  is  arranged  with  a 
view  to  its  being  followed  throughout  the 
course. 
—  ii  ••"•"•  •"•'•*  •"•"""  Ml 

Part  II.  EMPIRICAL  DESIGN— The 
second  part  is  intended  to  give  the  student  an 
idea  of  proportion.  Numerous  tables  of  pro- 
portions of  parts  that  have  become  standard, 
formulas,  etc.,  are  provided  as  well  as  many 
problems  from  which  a  course  of  study  may 
be  arranged.  It  is  arranged  to  thoroughly 
train  the  student  to  take  up  "Advance 
Machine  Design." 

Price,  each,  $1.25  Net 


MECHANICAL    DRAWING 

FOR     TRADE     SCHOOLS 


CHARLES    C.    LEEDS 

Assistant  Professor  of  Mechanical  Drawing, 

Carnegie  Technical  Schools.  School 

of  Applied  Industries 


The  author's  conviction  that  the  use 
of  models  serves  to  develop  copyists, 
and  often  tends  to  stunt  or  destroy  a 
draftsman's  creative  faculties,  has  led 
him  to  discard  entirely  the  use  of  models 
in  teaching  mechanical  drawing,  and  he 
has  arranged  these  lessons  in  a  manner 
which  he  believes  will  attract  and  hold 
the  attention  of  the  student.  Each 
lesson  will  guide  the  •  student  by  easy 
steps,  illustrate  some  fundamental  point 
in  mechanical  drawing,  and  work  as  a 
whole  towards  the  development  of  the 
creative  draftsman. 


MACHINERY    TRADES    EDITION 

58  Lessons  to  .  xj      Inches          Illustrated 

Price.  $2.00  Net 

HIGH    SCHOOL    EDITION 

4O  Lessons  lo'\  x7      Inches          Illustrated 

Price,  $1.25  Net 


PERSPECTIVE 

Jtff    ELEMEMTMRV    TEXTBOOK 
By    BEN    J.    LUBSCHEZ 

Member  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects 

This  book  is  a  concise  treatise  on  Perspective  primarily 
intended  for  home  study  by  the  beginner  or  draftsman 
without  the  aid  of  a  teacher,  but  also  of  great  value  to  the 
experienced  draftsman  and  to  the  layman  wishing  to  in- 
form himself  regarding  the  general  principles  of  the 
science.  It  contains  a  chapter  on  Short  Cuts  and  Special 
Manipulations  of  great  value  to  any  worker.  The  whole 
subject  is  very  clearly  and  simply  presented  in  a  unique 
way,  the  text  being  the  result  of  manv  years  of  experience 
in  the  drawing  of  Perspectives  in  an  architect's  office,  as 
well  as  in  teaching  the  subject  to  beginners. 

CONTENTS 

I.  Introductory.— Scope  and  Plan  of  the  Book.  II. 
Preliminary.— Seeing  in  Perspective.  Picture  Plane. 
Definition  of  Perspective.  Photograph  and  Perspective. 
Vanishing'  Points.  Horizon.  Foreshortening.  Size  of 
Image.  Vanishing  Points  of  Horizontal  lyines.  Position 
of  Picture  Plane.  III.  Making  a  Drawing  in  Perspec- 
tive.—Elevations  and  Perspectives.  The  Problem.  Dia- 
gram of  Working  Points.  Location  of  the  Point  of  Sta- 
tion. Finding  the  Vanishing  Points.  Finding  the 
Measuring  Points.  The  Perspective  Plan.  The  Perspec- 
tive Projection  or  Picture.  Redrawing  Without  Instruc- 
tions. IV.  Second  Problem  in  Perspective. — (To  be 
solved  in  the  s;ime  general  way  as  the  first  problem.) 
Statement  of  Problem  and  Discussion  of  New  and  Diffi- 
cult Points.  The  Perspective  of  Points  in  Front  of  the 
Picture  Plane.  Any  Problem  in  Perspective  may  be 
Solved  if  the  Perspective  of  any  Point  in  Space  can  be 
found.  Different  Methods  of  Finding  the  Persoective  of 
the  Same  Point.  V.  Vanishing  Points  and  the  Point  of 
Station.  -locating  the  Point  of  Station.  Obliquity  of 
View  and  Foreshortening.  Crowding  of  I^ines  as  they 
Approach  the  Horizon  or  Vanishing  Points.  Planes  and 
their  Vanishing  Lines.  Horizontal  Planes  and  the  Hori- 
zon. Oblique  and  Inclined  Planes  and  their  Vanishing 
Lines.  Vanishing  Lines  and  Vanishing  Points.  Vanish- 
ing Points  of  Oblique  Lines.  The  Vanishing  Point  of  any 
Line  and  Explanation  of  Construction  for  Finding  Van- 
ishing Points.  Two  Vanishing  Points  for  Every  Line. 
Conjugate  and  Reciprocal  Vanishing  Points.  Tri-Con- 
jugate  Vanishing  Points.  VI.  Measuring  Points  and 
Scales. — Scales.  Front  Lines.  Measuring  Points,  what 
they  are,  how  they  are  found,  and  why.  Special  Cases. 
VII.  Parallel  and  One  Point  Perspective.— Conditions  of. 
Vanishing  Points  and  Measuring  Points.  Definition  and 
Limits  of.  Special  Case  of  Ordinary  Perspective  with 
Conjugate  Vanishing  Points.  Problems  in  Parallel  Per- 
spective. Use.  VIII.  Special  Manipulations  and  Short 
Cuts. — Perspective  Centers.  Plotting  and  Craticulation. 
Circles  and  Curves.  Mitre  Points  and  Lines.  When 
Vanishing  Points  are  Off  the  Board.  When  Measuring 
Points  are  Off  the  Board.  When  the  Point  of  Which  We 
Wish  to  Find  the  Perspective  is  Off  the  Board.  When  the 
Distance  between  Vanishing  Points  is  Limited.  Discus- 
sion of  So-called  Distortion. 

IN    PRESS 

tOO  Pages,   .5x7  3O  Illustrations 


THEORY   OF 

Engineering  Drawing 

By   ALPHONSE   A.    ADLER,   B.S.,   M.E. 

Instructor  in  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Designing, 
Polytechnic  Institute  of  Brooklyn 

J4n  unusually  complete,  thorough  course, 
treating  the  subject  matter  in  a  radically  and. 
rationally  new  way. 

The  text  is  divided  into  four  parts  as  follows  : 

PART  I.  "Principles  of  Parallel  Projecting  -Line 
Drawing,"  also  printed  and  bound  separately.  (See 
book  below.) 

PART  II  treats  of  the  usual  problems  found  in  the 
various  Descriptive  Geometries  ;  the  Classification  of 
Lines  and  Surfaces  ;  and  Intersections  and  Developments. 
The  problems  are  numerous  and  cover  nearly  every  phase 
of  the  subject.  "Warped  Surfaces  are  not  included,  as  the 
author  did  not  think  these  essential  in  view  of  the  more 
important  material  which  is  usually  omitted. 

PART  III  treats  of  Perspective  Projection  and  gives 
this  subject  in  much  better  form  than  is  now  obtainable. 

PART  IV  treats  of  the  Pictorial  Effects  of  Illumination 
and  is  that  part  which  is  usually  headed,  "Shades  and 
Shadows." 


328  Pages,   6x9 


275  Illustrations 


Price,  $2.00  Net 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF 

Parallel  Projecting- 
Line  Drawing 

By    ALPHONSE   A.    ADLER,    II. S.,   M.E. 

Instructor  in  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Designing, 
Polytechnic  Institute  of  Brooklyn 

A  complete  and  concise  discussion  of  the  rapid 
methods  of  making  drawings  that  find  wide  application 
in  drafting  rooms.  Arranged  by  topics  so  that  reference 
to  a  particular  type  of  projection  is  easily  accomplished. 
The  complete  classification  of  the  types  of  projection 
makes  an  excellent  survey  of  the  entire  subject.  It  is  a 
book  that  teaches  principles  rather  than  methods,  and 
for  this  reason  it  should  be  useful  as  a  text  for  elementary 
instruction  in  drawing,  since  it  approaches  the  subject 
in  an  interesting  manner.  The  book  contains  four 
chapters  as  follows: - -1.  Introductory.  2.  Oblique  Pro- 
jection. 3.  Orthographic  Projection.  4.  Axonometric 
Projection.  Kach  chapter  shows  the  commercial  appli- 
cation of  the  type  of  projection  considered,  and  gives  a 
set  of  questions  which  thoroughly  cover  the  text.  A 
complete  index  is  also  included. 

72  Pages,  6x9  48  Illustrations 

Price,  $1.00  Net 


ELEMENTARY   COURSE    IN 

PERSPECTIVE 

By    SHERMAN    M.   TVRRILL 

Civil  Engineer.  Assoc.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 


This  book  shows  the  mechanical  application 
of  the  principles  of  descriptive  geometry  to 
the  making  of  a  perspective  drawing.  Two 
methods  are  explained — the  ' '  Method  by  the 
Use  of  the  Plan,"  which  requires  the  use  of 
instruments  and  is  intended  for  the  mechanical 
draftsman,  while  the  "Method  by  Scale"  is 
the  quicker  process  where  the  accurate  location 
of  the  leading  or  important  points  only  is  de- 
sired, and  is  helpful  for  the  freehand  drafts- 
man and  artist.  There  are  eighty-eight  problems 
for  solution  by  either  method  covering  the 
principles  as  applied  to  the  illustrated  subject 
in  a  variety  of  position. 


CONTENTS 

METHOD  BY,  ORTHOGRAPHIC  PROJECTION  :  Defini- 
tions and  Descriptions.  Notation.  Pictorial  Perspec- 
tive of  a  Pyramid.  Perspective  of:  a  Pyramid  ;  a  Build- 
ing; a  Cube  and  Parallelepiped  ;  a  Plane  Curve  ;  a  Cylin- 
der ;  the  Shadow  of  the  Frustrum  of  a  Pyramid  by  Use  of 
the  Horizontal  Projection  ot  the  Shadow  ;  the  Shadow  of 
the  Krustrum  of  a  Pyramid  by  the  Method  of  the  Vanish- 
ing Point  of  Rays;  a  Shadow  of  a  Cube  and  Parallel- 
opiped  ;  the  Shadow  of  the  Fmstrum  of  a  Pyramid  on  an 
Oblique  Plane.  Problem.  METHOD  BY  SCALE:  Com- 
parison of  the  Two  Methods.  Perspective  of:  a  Pyra 
mid  ;  a  Building  ;  a  Cube  and  Parallelepiped  ;  a  Cylinder  ; 
the  Shadow  of  a  Cube  and  Parallelepiped .  Problems. 


81  Pages,  5x7}&        /6~  Illustrations  and 
Folding  Plates 

Price,  $1.25  Net 


D.  VAN    NOSTRAND    COMPANY 


Publishers 


25    Park   Place,   New  York 


THIRD  EDITION 


"  While  deprecating  any  need- 
lessly elaborate  finish,  the  writer 
advises  the  use  of  just  sufficient 
shading  and  finishing  touches 
to  render  a  drawing  thoroughly 
comprehensible  and  to  preclude 
any  possible  ambiguity.  ' 

"  The  illustrations  in  this  work, 
quite  a  number  of  which  have 
appeared  in  the  columns  of 
'Engineering  News,"  are  in- 
serted to  demonstrate  the  points 
involved  and  have  been  reduced 
more  or  less  in  size  so  as  to  save 
space.  They  may  however  be 
copied  by  enlarging  to  about  3  or 
4  times  their  linear  dimensions." 


REINHAUDT'S 


/  TECHKK 

^        OF  MECHA1N1C41 
°FPI 


A  PDACTICAL  GUIDE 

TO  NEAT.CODRECTAND 

LEGIBLE  DRAWING. 


Third,    Thoroughly    Revised    and    Enlarged    Edition 
•JO   Text    Illustrations,    11    Plates.      Price,    81.OO 

TESTIMONIALS 


Price,  $1.00 


"  It  is  of  course  to  be  under- 
stood, that  this  book  is  not  a 
manual  for  beginners  exactly ; 
it  serves  its  purpose  best,  where 
used  by  the  draftsman  who  is 
familiar  with  the  mathematical 
principles  of  mechanical  drafting. 
It  will  then,  as  the  writer  hopes, 
prove  a  valuable  aid  to  the  rapid 
production  of  neat,  correct  "and 
legible  drawings." 

(PREFACE.) 


"I  have  examined  the  book  carefully  and  am  much  pleased  with  it.  Mr.  Rein- 
hardt  is  to  be  congratulated  on  having  clearly,  simply  and  briefly  explained  the 
methods  he  has  used  in  making  his  drawings  remarkable  for  their  great  clearness 
and  legibility.  It  is  a  book  that  should  be  on  the  desk  of  every  draftsman." — 
Prof.  C.  B  Wing.  Leland  Stanford.  Jr..  University. 

"I  find  it  most  excellently  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended."— 
Prof.  Walter  Flint,  University  of  Maine. 

"Am  greatly  pleased  with  it:  itoccupies  a  fleid  of  its  own  among  books  on  draft- 
ing."—Prof.  Robt.  L.  Lund,  Vanderbilt  University. 

"It  should  be  in  the  library  of  every  draftsman."— Prof.  C.  W.  Marx.  Missouri 
State  University. 

"It  admirably  fills  a  long-felt  want."— Prof.  John  L.  Mann.  Thayer  School  of 
Civil  Engineering. 

"It  is  certainly  the  best  compendium  of  instruction  and  elegant  examples  that 
I  have  seen."— Prof.  Robert  Fletcher,  Ph.D..  Director  Thayer  School  of  Civil  Engi- 
neering. 


"It  will  form  a  useful  supplement  to  Mr.  Reinhardt's  'System  of  Lettering.'  " 
—Prof.  E.  H.  Lockwood.  Sheffield  Scientific  School. 

"Have  adopted  it  as  a  reference  book  for  our  civil  engineering  students.  Your 
'Lettering'  has  been  the  means  of  bringing  about  a  distinct  lift  in  the  standard  of 
freehand  lettering,  anfl  1  predict  a  like  result  in  the  field  covered  by  your  new 
work."— Prof.  W.  D.  Pence,  Purdue  University. 

"Reinhardt's  'Technic  of  Mechanical  Drafting.'  is  a  book  that  should  be  in  the 
drafting  department  of  every  engineer's  office.  H  describes  those  subtle  details  in 
execution  which  constitute  the  essentials  of  effective  expression  in  a  drawing,  both 
as  to  truthfulness  in  its  representation  as  well  as  its  artistic  finish.  This  state- 
ment is  admirably  illustrated  by  the  contrasts  shown  in  Figs,  (i,  7,  22  and  46.  In 
view  of  the  important  part  of  detail  drawings  in  all  kinds  of  construction,  it  is  an 
important  service  to  show  how  the  element  of  thorough  legibility  may  be  assured 
without  necessarily  increasing  the  cost  of  the  drawing.  My  early  experience  of  six 
years  in  a  drafting-room  leads  me  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  manyhints  which 
might  otherwise  appear  to  be  of  little,  if  any,  value.  Each  of  the  chapters  on 
'Outline  Shading,'  and  on  "Section  Lining.'  are  alone  worth  the  price  of  the  book." 
—Prof.  Henry  S.  Jacoby,  Cornell  University. 


FOR  SALE 
BY 


D.    VAN     NOSTRAND     COMPANY,     25   ParR   Place,   New  York 


. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


LD  21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476 


/o, 


YE  01982 


I 


